Vector Spaces ปร ภ ม เวกเตอร

Transcription

1 Vector Spaces ปร ภ ม เวกเตอร 1

2 5.1 Real Vector Spaces ปร ภ ม เวกเตอร ของจ านวนจร ง

3 Vector Space Axioms (1/2) Let V be an arbitrary nonempty set of objects on which two operations are defined, addition and multiplication by scalars (numbers). By addition we mean a rule for associating with each pair of objects u and v in V an object u + v, called the sum of u and v; by scalar multiplication we mean a rule for associating with each scalar k and each object u in V an object ku, called the scalar multiple of u by k. If the following axioms are satisfied by all objects u, v, w in V and all scalars k and l, then we call V a vector space and we call the objects in V vectors. 3

4 Vector Space Axioms(2/2) 1) If u and v are objects in V, then u + v is in V. 2) u + v = v + u 3) u + (v + w) = (u + v) + w 4) There is an object 0 in V, called a zero vector for V, such that 0 + u = u + 0 = u for all u in V. 5) For each u in V, there is an object u in V, called a negative of u, such that u + ( u) = ( u) + u = 0. 6) If k is any scalar and u is any object in V, then ku is in V. 7) k (u + v) = ku + kv 8) (k + l) u = ku + lu 9) k (lu) = (kl) (u) 10) 1u = u 4

5 Remark Depending on the application, scalars may be real numbers or complex numbers. Vector spaces in which the scalars are complex numbers are called complex vector spaces, and those in which the scalars must be real are called real vector spaces. We shall discuss complex vector spaces; until then, all of our scalars will be real numbers. The definition of a vector space specifies neither the nature of the vectors nor the operations. Any kind of object can be a vector, and the operations of addition and scalar multiplication may not have any relationship or similarity to the standard vector operations on R n. The only requirement is that the ten vector space axioms be satisfied. 5

6 Example 1 R n Is a Vector Space The set V = R n with the standard operations of addition and scalar multiplication is a vector space. The three most important special cases of R n are o R (the real numbers), o R 2 (the vectors in the plane), and o R 3 (the vectors in 3-space). 6

7 Example 2 A Vector Space of 2 2 Matrices (1/4) Show that the set V of all 2 2 matrices with real entries is a vector space if vector addition is defined to be matrix addition and vector scalar multiplication is defined to be matrix scalar multiplication. 7

8 Example 2 A Vector Space of 2 2 Matrices (2/4) Solution. In this example we will find it convenient to verify the axioms in the following order: 1, 6, 2, 3, 7, 8, 9, 4, 5, and 10. u u u Let u = and v = u v v v v To prove Axiom 1, we must show that u + v is an object in V; that is we must show that u + v is a 2 2 matrix. u11 u12 v11 v12 u + v = + = u21 u 22 v21 v 22 u + v u + v u + v u + v

9 Example 2 A Vector Space of 2 2 Matrices (3/4) Similarly, Axiom 6 hold because for any real number k we have u11 u12 ku11 ku12 ku = k = u u ku ku so that ku is a 2 2 matrix and consequently is an object in V. Axioms 2: u + v = v + u u u v v v v u u u v = u21 u + 22 v21 v = + = + 22 v21 v 22 u21 u v u 22 Axiom 3: u + (v + w) = (u + v) + w (3,7, 8, 9, 4, 5, and 10 แสดงเอง) 9

10 Example 3 A Vector Space of m n Matrices Example 2 is a special case of a more general class of vector spaces. The arguments in that example can be adapted to show that the set V of all m n matrices with real entries, together with the operations matrix addition and scalar multiplication, is a vector space. The m n zero matrix is the zero vector 0, and if u is the m n matrix U, then matrix U is the negative u of the vector u. We shall denote this vector space by the symbol M mn. 10

11 Example 4 A Vector Space of Real-Valued Functions Let V be the set of real-valued functions defined on the entired real line (-, ). If f = f(x) and g = g(x) are two such functions and k is any real number, defined the sum function f + g and the scalar multiple kf, respectively, by (f + g)(x) = f (x) + g(x) and (kf )(x) = kf (x) 11

12 Remark In the preceding example we focused attention on the interval (-, ). Had we restricted our attention to some closed interval [a, b] or some open interval (a, b), the functions defined on those intervals with the operations stated in the example would also have produced vector spaces. Those vector spaces are denoted by F[a, b] and F(a, b). 12

13 Example 5 A Set That Is Not a Vector Space Let V = R 2 and define addition and scalar multiplication operations as follows: If u = (u 1, u 2 ) and v = (v 1, v 2 ), then define u+ v= ( u + v, u + v ) and if k is any real number, then define ku = ( ku,0) 1 13

14 Example 5 A Set That Is Not a Vector Space (Solution) There are values of u for which Axiom 10 fails to hold. For example, if u = (u 1, u 2 ) is such that u 2 0,then 1u= 1( u, u ) = (1 u,0) = ( u,0) u Thus, V is not a vector space with the stated operations. 14

15 Example 6 Every Plane Through the Origin Is a Vector Space Let V be any plane through the origin in R 3. (สมการระนาบผ านจ ดก าเน ด ax + by + cz = 0 ) From Example 1, we know that R 3 itself is a vector space under these operation. Thus, Axioms 2, 3, 7, 8, 9, and 10 hold for all points in R 3 and consequently for all points in the plane V. We therefore need only show that Axioms 1, 4, 5, and 6 are satisfied. 15

16 Example 7 The Zero Vector Space Let V consist of a single object, which we denote by 0, and define = 0 and k0 = 0 for all scalars k. We called this the zero vector space. 16

17 Theorem Let V be a vector space, u a vector in V, and k a scalar; then: a) 0u = 0 b) K0 = 0 c) (-1)u = -u d) If ku = 0, then k = 0 or u = 0. 17

18 5.2 Subspaces ปร ภ ม ย อย

19 Definition A subset W of a vector space V is called a subspace of V if W is itself a vector space under the addition and scalar multiplication defined on V. 19

20 Theorem If W is a set of one or more vectors from a vector space V, then W is a subspace of V if and only if the following conditions hold. a) If u and v are vectors in W, then u + v is in W. b) If k is any scalar and u is any vector in W, then ku is in W. 20

21 Remark Theorem states that W is a subspace of V if and only if W is a closed under addition (condition (a)) and closed under scalar multiplication (condition (b)). 21

22 Example 1 Testing for a Subspace Let W be any plane through the origin and let u and v be any vectors in W. Then u + v must line in W because it is the diagonal of the parallelogram determined by u and v, and ku must line in W for any scalar k because ku lies on a line through u. Thus, W is closed under addition and scalar multiplication, so it is a sunspace of R 3. 22

23 Example 2 Lines Through the Origin Are Subspaces Show that a line through the origin of R 3 is a subspace of R 3. Solution. Let W be a line through the origin of R 3. 23

24 Example 3 A subspace of R 2 That Is Not a Subspace Let W be the set of all points (x, y) in R 2 such that x > 0 and y > 0. These are the points in the first quadrant. The set W is not a subspace of R 2 since it is not closed under scalar multiplication. 24

25 Remark Every nonzero vector space V has at least two subspace: V itself is a subspace, and the set {0} consisting of just the zero vector in V is a subspace called the zero subspace. Combining this with Example 1 and 2, we obtain the following list of subspaces of R 2 and R 3 : 25

26 Subspace of R 2 {0} Lines through the origin R 2 Subspace of R 3 {0} Lines through the origin Planes through origin R 3 Remark These are the only subspaces of R 2 and R 3. 26

27 Example 4 Subspaces of M nn From Theorem the sum of two symmetric matrices is symmetric, and a scalar multiple of a symmetric matrix is symmetric. Thus, the set of n n symmetric matrices is a subspace of the vector space M nn of n n matrices. The set of n n upper triangular matrices, the set of n n lower triangular matrices, and the set of n n diagonal matrices all form subspaces of M nn, since each of these sets is closed under addition and scalar multiplication. 27

28 Example 5 A Subspace of Polynomials of Degree < n Let n be a nonnegative integer, and let W consist of all function expressible in the form p(x) = a 0 + a 1 x a n x n where a 0,,a n are real number. Let p and q be the polynomials Then and p(x) = a 0 + a 1 x a n x n and q(x) = b 0 + b 1 x b n x n (p + q)(x) = p(x) + q(x) = (a 0 + b 0 ) + (a 1 + b 1 )x (a n + b n )x n (kp)(x) = kp(x) = (ka 0 ) + (ka 1 )x (ka n )x n These functions have the form given in (1), so p + q and kp lie in W. We shall denote the vector space W in this example by the symbol P n. 28

29 Example 6 Subspaces of Functions Continuous on (-, ) Recall from calculus that if f and g are continuous functions on the interval (-, ) and k is a constant, then f + g and kf are also continuous. Thus, the continuous functions on the interval (-, ) form a subspace of F(-, ), since they are closed under addition and scalar multiplication. We denote this subspace by C(-, ). Similarly, if f and g have continuous first derivatives on (-, ) form a subspace of F(-, ). We denote this subspace by C 1 (-, ), where the subscript 1 is used to emphasize the first derivate. However, it is a theorem of calculus that every differentiable function is continuous, so C 1 (-, ) is actually a subspace of C(-, ). 29

30 Example 6 Subspaces of Functions Continuous on (-, ) To take this a step further, for each positive integer m, the functions with continuous m th derivatives on (-, ) form a subspace of C 1 (-, ) as do the functions that have continuous derivates of all orders. We denote the subspace of functions with continuous m th derivatives on (-, ) by C m (-, ), and we denote the subspace of functions that have continuous derivatives of all order on (-, ) by C (-, ). Finally, it is a theorem of calculus that polynomials have continuous derivatives of all order, so P n is a subspace of C (-, ). 30

31 Example 6 Subspaces of Functions Continuous on (-, ) 31

32 Solution Space of Homogeneous Systems If Ax = b is a system of the linear equations, then each vector x that satisfies this equation is called a solution vector of the system. The following theorem shows that the solution vectors of a homogeneous linear system form a vector space, which we shall call the solution space of the system. 32

33 Theorem If Ax = 0 is a homogeneous linear system of m equations in n unknowns, then the set of solution vectors is a subspace of R n. 33

34 Example 7 Solution Spaces That Are Subspaces of R 3 (a) ! " $ % x y z! " $ % = 0 0 0! " $ % (b) ! " $ % x y z! " $ % = 0 0 0! " $ % (c) ! " $ % x y z! " $ % = 0 0 0! " $ % (d) ! " $ % x y z! " $ % = 0 0 0! " $ % Each of these systems has three unknowns, so the solutions form subspaces of R 3. Geometrically, this means that each solution space must be a line through the origin, a plane through the origin, the origin only, or all of R 3. We shall now verify that this is so. 34

35 Example 7 Solution Spaces That Are Subspaces of R 3 Solution. (a) x = 2s 3t, y = s, z = t x = 2y 3z or x 2y + 3z = 0 This is the equation of the plane through the origin with n = (1, 2, 3) as a normal vector. (b) x = 5t, y = t, z = t which are parametric equations for the line through the origin parallel to the vector v = ( 5, 1, 1). (c) The solution is x = 0, y = 0, z = 0, so the solution space is the origin only, that is {0}. (d) The solution are x = r, y = s, z = t, where r, s, and t have arbitrary values, so the solution space is all of R 3. 35

36 Definition A vector w is a linear combination of the vectors v 1, v 2,, v r if it can be expressed in the form w = k 1 v 1 + k 2 v k r v r where k 1, k 2,, k r are scalars. 36

37 Example 8 Vectors in R 3 Are Linear Combinations of i, j, and k Every vector v = (a, b, c) in R 3 is expressible as a linear combination of the standard basis vectors since i = (1, 0, 0), j = (0, 1, 0), k = (0, 0, 1) v = (a, b, c) = a(1, 0, 0) + b(0, 1, 0) + c(0, 0, 1) = ai + bj + ck 37

38 Example 9 Checking a Linear Combination Consider the vectors u = (1, 2, 1) and v = (6, 4, 2) in R 3. Show that w = (9, 2, 7) is a linear combination of u and v and that w = (4, 1, 8) is not a linear combination of u and v. 38

39 Example 9 Checking a Linear Combination Solution. In order for w to be a linear combination of u and v, there must be scalars k 1 and k 2 such that w = k 1 u + k 2 v; (9, 2, 7) = (k 1 + 6k 2, 2k 1 + 4k 2, k 1 + 2k 2 ) Equating corresponding components gives k 1 + 6k 2 = 9 2k 1 + 4k 2 = 2 k 1 + 2k 2 = 7 Solving this system yields k 1 = 3, k 2 = 2, so w = 3u + 2v 39

40 Example 9 Checking a Linear Combination Similarly, for w to be a linear combination of u and v, there must be scalars k 1 and k 2 such that w = k 1 u + k 2 v; (4, -1, 8) = k 1 (1, 2, 1) + k 2 (6, 4, 2) Or (4, 1, 8) = (k 1 + 6k 2, 2k 1 + 4k 2, k 1 + 2k 2 ) Equating corresponding components gives k 1 + 6k 2 = 4 2 k 1 + 4k 2 = 1 k 1 + 2k 2 = 8 This system of equation is inconsistent, so no such scalars k 1 and k 2 exist. Consequently, w is not a linear combination of u and v. 40

41 Theorem If v 1, v 2,, v r are vectors in a vector space V, then: a) The set W of all linear combinations of v 1, v 2,, v r is a subspace of V. b) W is the smallest subspace of V that contain v 1, v 2,, v r in the sense that every other subspace of V that contain v 1, v 2,, v r must contain W. 41

42 Definition If S = {v 1, v 2,, v r } is a set of vectors in a vector space V, then the subspace W of V containing of all linear combination of these vectors in S is called the space spanned by v 1, v 2,, v r and we say that the vectors v 1, v 2,, v r span W. To indicate that W is the space spanned by the vectors in the set S = {v 1, v 2,, v r }, we write W = span(s) or W = span{v 1, v 2,, v r } 42

43 Example 10 Spaces Spanned by One or Two Vectors If v 1 and v 2 are nonlinear vectors in R 3 with their initial points at the origin, then span{v 1, v 2 }, which consists of all linear combinations k1 v 1 + k2 v 2 is the plane determined by v 1 and v 2. Similarly, if v is a nonzero vector in R 2 and R 3, then span{v}, which is the set of all scalar multiples kv, is the linear determined by v. 43

44 Example 10 Spaces Spanned by One or Two Vectors 44

45 Example 11 Spanning Set for P n The polynomials 1, x, x 2,, x n span the vector space P n defined in Example 5 since each polynomial p in P n can be written as p = a 0 + a 0 x + + a n x n which is a linear combination of 1, x, x 2,, x n. We can denote this by writing P n = span{1, x, x 2,, x n } 45

46 Example 12 Three Vectors That Do Not Span R 3 Determine whether v 1 = (1, 1, 2), v 2 = (1, 0, 1), and v 3 = (2, 1, 3) span the vector space R 3. 46

47 Example 12 Three Vectors That Do Not Span R 3 Solution. We must determine whether an arbitrary vector b = (b 1, b 2, b 3 ) in R3 can be expressed as a linear combination b = k 1 v 1 + k 2 v 2 + k 3 v 3 Expressing this equation in terms of components gives (b 1, b 2, b 3 ) = k 1 (1, 1, 3) + k 2 (1, 0, 1) + k 3 (2, 1,3) or (b 1, b 2, b 3 ) = (k 1 + k 2 + 2k 3, k 1 + k 3, 2k 1 + k k 3 ) or k 1 + k 2 + 2k 3 = b 1 + k 3 = b k 1 2k 1 + k k 3 = b 3! A = " $,det( A) = 0 % by parts (e) and (g) of Theorem 4.3.4, this system is consistent for all b 1, b 2, and b 3 if and only if the coefficient matrix has a nonzero determinant. However, det(a) = 0, so that v 1, v 2, and v 3, do not span R3. 47

48 Theorem If S = {v 1, v 2,, v r } and S = {w 1, w 2,, w r } are two sets of vector in a vector space V, then span{v 1, v 2,, v r } = span{w 1, w 2,, w r } if and only if each vector in S is a linear combination of these in S and each vector in S is a linear combination of these in S. 48

49 5.3 Linear Independence อ สระเช งเส น

50 Definition If S={v 1, v 2,, v r } is a nonempty set of vector, then the vector equation k 1 v 1 +k 2 v 2 + +k r v r =0 has at least one solution, namely k 1 =0, k 2 =0,, k r =0 If this the only solution, then S is called linearly independent set. If there are other solutions, then S is called a linear dependent set. 50

51 Example 1 A Linear Dependent Set Let v 1 =(2, 1, 0, 3), v 2 =(1, 2, 5, 1), v 3 =(7, 1, 5, 8), The set of vectors S={v 1, v 2, v 3 } is linearly dependent, since 3v 1 + v 2 v 3 =0. 51

52 Example 2 A Linearly Dependent Set The polynomials p 1 =1 x, p 2 =5+3x 2x 2, and p 3 =1+3x x 2 The set S={p 1, p 2, p 3 } of polynomials in P 2 is linearly dependensince 3p 1 p 2 +2p 3 =0. 52

53 Example 3 Linear Independent Sets Consider the vectors i=(1,0,0), j=(0,1,0) and k=(0,0,1) in R 3. The vector equation k 1 i+k 2 j+k 3 k=0 has only solution (k 1, k 2, k 3 )=(0, 0, 0). So the set S={i, j, k} is linearly independent. A similar argument can be used to show the vectors e 1 =(1, 0, 0,,0), e 2 =(0, 1, 0,, 0),, e n =(0, 0, 0,, 1) form a linearly independent set in R n. 53

54 Example 4 Determining Linear Independence/Dependence Determine whether the vectors v 1 =(1, 2, 3), v 2 =(5, 6, 1), v 3 =(3, 2, 1) form a linearly dependent set or a linearly independent set. Solution In terms of components the vector equation k 1 v 1 +k 2 v 2 +k 3 v 3 =0 becomes k 1 (1, 2, 3)+k 2 (5, 6, 1)+k 3 (3, 2, 1)=(0, 0, 0) Thus, v 1, v 2, and v 3 form a linearly dependent set if this system has a nontrivial solution, or a linearly independent set if it has only the trivial solution. Solving this system yields k 1 = 1/2t, k 2 = 1/2t, k 3 =t. 54

55 Example 4 Determining Linear Independence/Dependence If the system has nontrivial solutions, then the set {v 1, v 2, v 3 } is a linearly dependent set. Alternatively, we could show the existence of nontrivial solutions by showing that the coefficient matrix has determinant zero. (or A RR I n ) 55

56 Example 5 Linearly Independent Set in P n Show that the polynomials 1, x, x 2,, x n form a linearly independent set of vectors in P n. Solution Let p 0 =1, p 1 =x, p 2 = x 2,, p n =x n and assume a 0 p 0 +a 1 p 1 +a 2 p 2 + +a n p n = 0 (1) or equivalently, a 0 +a 1 x+a 2 x 2 + +a n x n = 0 for all x in (-, ) we must show that a 0 = a 1 = a 2 = = a n = 0 Recall from algebra that a nonzero polynomial of degree n has at most n distinct roots. But this implies that a 0 =a 1 =a 2 = =a n =0; otherwise, it would follow from (1) that a 0 +a 1 x+a 2 x 2 + +a n x n is a nonzero polynomial with infinitely many roots. 56

57 Theorem A set with two or more vectors is: a) Linearly dependent if and only if at least one of the vectors in S is expressible as a linear combination of the other vectors in S. b) Linearly independent if and only if no vector in S is expressible as a linear combination of the other vectors in S. 57

58 Example 6 Example 1 Revisited In Example 1 we saw that the vectors v 1 =(2, 1, 0, 3), v 2 =(1, 2, 5, 1), and v 3 =(7, 1, 5, 8) Form a linearly dependent set. In this example each vector is expressible as a linear combination of the other two since it follows from the equation 3v 1 +v 2 v 3 = 0 that v 1 = 1/3v 2 +1/3v 3, v 2 = 3 v 1 +v 3, and v 3 = 3v 1 +v 2 58

59 Example 7 Example 3 Revisited Consider the vectors i=(1, 0, 0), j=(0, 1, 0), and k=(0, 0, 1) in R 3. Suppose that k is expressible as k=k 1 i+k 2 j Then, in terms of components, (0, 0, 1)=k 1 (1, 0, 0)+k 2 (0, 1, 0) or (0, 0, 1)=(k 1, k 2, 0) But the last equation is not satisfied by any values of k 1 and k 2, so k cannot be expressed as a linear combination of i and j. Similarly, i is not expressible as a linear combination of j and k, and j is not expressible as a linear combination of i and k. 59

60 Theorem a) A finite set of vectors that contains the zero vector is linearly dependent. b) A set with exactly two vectors is linearly independently if and only if neither vector is a scalar multiple of the other. 60

61 Example 8 Using Theorem 5.3.2b The function f 1 =x and f 2 =sin x form a linear independent set of vectors in F(-, ), since neither function is a constant multiple of the other. 61

62 Geometric Interpretation In R 2 and R 3, a set of two vectors is linearly independent if and only if the vectors do not lie on the same line when they are placed with their initial points at the origin. 62

63 Geometric Interpretation In R 3, a set of three vectors is linearly independent if and only if the vectors do not lie in the same plane when they are placed with their initial points at the origin. 63

64 Theorem Let S={v 1, v 2,, v r } be a set of vectors in R n. If r>n, then S is linearly dependent. 64

65 Linear Independence of Functions If f 1 =f 1 (x), f 2 =f 2 (x),, f n =f n (x) are n 1 times differentiable functions on the interval (-, ), then the determinant of W(x) = f 1 (x) f 2 (x)... f n (x) f 1 ' (x) f 2 ' (x)... f n ' (x) : : : f (n 1) 1 (x) f (n 1) 2 (x)... f (n 1) n (x) is called the Wronskian of f 1, f 2,,f n. As we shall now know, this determinant is useful for ascertaining whether the functions f 1, f 2,,f n form a linear independent set of vectors in the vector space C (n-1) (-, ). 65

66 Linear Independence of Functions Suppose, for the moment, that f 1, f 2,,f n are linear dependent vectors in C (n-1) (-, ). Then, there exist scalars k 1, k 2,, k n, not all zero, such that k 1 f 1 (x)+ k 2 f 2 (x)+ + k n f n (x)=0 for all x in the interval (-, ). Combining this equation with the equations obtained by n 1 successive differentiations yields. k 1 f 1 (x) + k 2 f 2 (x) k n f n (x) = 0 k 1 f ' (x) + 1 k 2 f ' (x) ' k f n n (x) = 0 k 1 f (n 1) (x) + k 1 2 f (n 1) (x) k (n 1) f 2 n n (x) = 0 66

67 Linear Independence of Functions Thus, the linear dependence of f 1, f 2,,f n implies that the linear system f 1 (x) f 2 (x)... f n (x) f 1 ' (x) f 2 ' (x)... f n ' (x) : : : f (n 1) 1 (x) f (n 1) 2 (x)... f (n 1) n (x) has a nontrivial solution for every x in the interval (-, ). This implies in turn that for every x in (-, ) the coefficient matrix is not invertible, or equivalently, that its determinant (the Wronskian) is zero for ever x in (-, ). k 1 k 2 : k n = 0 0 : 0 67

68 Theorem If the functions f 1, f 2,,f n have n-1 continuous derivatives on the interval (-, ), and if the Wronskian of these functions is not identically zero on (-, ), then these functions form a linearly independent set of vectors in C (n-1) (-, ). 68

69 Example 9 Linearly Independent Set in C 1 (-, ) Show that the functions f 1 =x and f 2 =sin x form a linearly independent set of vectors in C 1 (-, ). Solution The Wronskian is W(x) = x sinx 1 cosx = x cosx sinx This function does not have value zero for all x in the interval (-, ), so f 1 and f 2 form a linearly independent set. 69

70 Example 10 Linearly Independent Set in C 2 (-, ) Show that the functions f 1 =1 and f 2 =e x, and f3=e 2x form a linearly independent set of vectors in C 2 (-, ). Solution The Wronskian is 1 e x e 2x 0 e x 2e 2x = 2e 3x 0 e x 4e 2x This function does not have value zero for all x (in fact, for any x) in the interval (-, ), so f 1, f 2, and f 3 form a linearly independent set. 70

71 Remark If the Wronskian of f 1, f 2,,f n is identically zero on (-, ), then no conclusion can be reached the linear independence of {f 1, f 2,,f n }; this set of vectors may be linearly independent or linearly dependent. 71